California Healthy Kids Resource Ctr.

Annotated Bibliography of Safe Schools Research

Battistich, V., Schaps, E., Watson, M., Solomon, D., Lewis, C. (2000). Effects of the Child Development Project on students drug use and other problem behaviors. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 21, 75–99.

This 4-year, multi-site study assessed the impact of the Child Development Project on students drug use and other problem behaviors. Twenty-four urban, suburban, and rural elementary schools serving diverse student populations from the West Coast, South, Southeast and Northeast were matched according to school size and student characteristics. Twelve schools were selected as program schools; twelve were selected as comparison schools. Teachers in the program schools received a modified training-of-trainers. Assessments were completed at baseline and during the next three years. Five-hundred fifty teachers and approximately 5,500 students were assessed each year. Students drug use and other problem behaviors were only assessed for the fifth and sixth grades at each school. When all schools were assessed, there was a significant difference between program and comparison school students alcohol use. Program school students alcohol use declined following baseline whereas comparison school students use rose. The frequency of throwing objects at people increased among program students and declined among comparison schools. Separate analyses were conducted for the 5 program schools that showed meaningful implementation changes from baseline. There was a significant difference between students use of alcohol and marijuana when the 5 high change schools were compared to comparison schools. Students use of alcohol and marijuana declined over time in these 5 high change schools, whereas use in the 5 comparison schools increased. The frequency of running away from home, taking a vehicle without the owners permission, and being involved in gang fights declined in these 5 high change schools, whereas the frequency increased in comparison schools. Reports of having property damaged at school increased twice as much in comparison groups as in high change program groups.

Eggert, L.L., Seyl, C.D. & Nickols, L.J. (1990). Effects of a school-based prevention program for potential high school dropouts and drug abusers. International Journal of the Addictions, 25, 773–801.

This study tested the feasibility and effectiveness of a school-based prevention program for potential high school dropouts and drug abusers. Two hundred and sixty-four predominantly White, middle-class high-risk 9–12th grade students in urban Northwest high schools were identified and asked to participate in an elective Interpersonal Relations class (IPR). Students were identified as high-risk by previous dropout status, below average school performance, chronic absenteeism and teacher or counselor referrals. Students could enroll in the class on a first-come-first-served basis. Students who were not able to enroll were matched to student participants and served as controls. Students in the IPR class met daily for 55 minutes for one semester. Teachers received a 3-day training plus a 2-day session at the end of the 1st semester. They also participated in weekly meetings. Program implementation was monitored by program developers. Program developers’ observations were analyzed at weekly meetings. Data were collected for school retention, achievement, truancy and drug involvement. Drug involvement was assessed by adverse drug consequences and drug use measures. Adverse drug consequences measured psychosocial complications, biomedical consequences, school problems and legal problems. Drug use was assessed by amount and frequency, extent of use by peers, peer pressure to use, rationale for use and network feedback for use. The scales used to measure drug involvement were tested for reliability and found internally consistent. The IPR class retained significantly more potential dropouts than the regular school program. The IPR class also produced significantly greater positive trends for grade point averages, credits earned per semester, and daily class attendance. Students who participated in the IPR class also significantly decreased their drug use and adverse consequences during the IPR semester.

Eggert, L.L., Thompson, E.A., Herting, J.R., Nicholas, L.J. (1995). Reducing suicide potential among high-risk youth: Tests of a school-based prevention program. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 25, 276–296.

One hundred and five high-risk students from 5 urban high schools were invited to participate in a one- or two-semester personal growth class or participate in a survey of high school students. Two hundred and two students who were not at-risk (i.e., not at-risk for school failure) also participated in the survey and served as a normative comparison. Data were collected at baseline, 5— and 10-month follow up for the 3 high-risk groups and the normative comparison group. The personal growth class was delivered by trained school personnel. Classes were taught daily for 55 minutes in regular classrooms for elective credit. Except for age and prior social support, there were no significant differences among the 3 high-risk groups. The Brief Suicide Risk Behavior Scale was used to assess suicide-risk factors. This scale measured suicide thoughts, direct and indirect suicide threats, and suicide attempts. Regardless of group, all youth identified as at risk of suicide were contacted by a trained psychosocial nurse specialist or counselor for an in-depth assessment. Students were then followed by a case manager and his/her parents were apprised of the students status by telephone. There was a significant decrease in suicide behaviors in all 3 high-risk groups. There was also a significant trend associated with an initial decrease in suicide risk behaviors at 5-month follow up with a slight increase in suicide risk behaviors for students receiving the one- and two-semester personal growth class at 10-month follow up. The trend was significant for each group. In general, all 3 high-risk groups demonstrated a significant decrease in suicide-risk behaviors over 10 months. There was also a significant decrease in trends in the predicted direction for depression and stress for all high-risk groups. The same was true for hopelessness, but the trend varied by gender. There was a significant difference in anger scores between the groups who received the 1— versus 2-semester class 10 months after the program was implemented. Students who received the one- or two-semester personal growth class demonstrated significantly higher personal control over time. All three groups showed a significant increase in self-esteem over time. Students who took the class reported lower self-esteem at baseline. At 5-month follow-up, the difference was statistically significant. At 10-month follow-up, the difference became non-significant again. There was a consistent pattern of increased social support across time for all 3 high-risk groups.

Grossman, D.C., Neckerman, H.J., Koepsell, T.D., Liu, P., Asher, K.N., Beland, K., Frey, K., Rivara, F. P. (1997). Effectiveness of a violence prevention curriculum among children in elementary students. Journal of the American Medical Association, 20, 1605–1611.

This study assessed the effectiveness of Second Step in 2nd and 3rd grade students. Twelve urban and suburban elementary schools from four school districts in Washington were matched and then randomized into intervention and control groups. A total of 49 classrooms were included in the study analysis. Teachers from the intervention schools received a 2-day training. Intervention students received 30 lessons once or twice a week for 16— to 20-weeks. Outcomes were assessed using teacher and parent ratings. Twelve students from each participating classroom were randomly selected for direct behavioral observations in the classroom, playground and cafeteria. Observers watched students and recorded social behavior for thirty 10-second intervals for a total of 5 minutes. Behaviors were categorized as prosocial/neutral, verbal negative and physical negative. Data were collected at baseline, 2-weeks and 6-months post intervention. Students in intervention and control groups were similar in most characteristics except control schools had more students who received special education services and were African American, while more students in intervention schools were Asian American. Intervention and control schools did not differ in the levels of social competence and aggressive behavior reported by teachers and parents. Behavioral observations showed a significant difference between intervention and control students for negative physical behavior 2-weeks post intervention in the classroom. There was also a significant net adjusted change score of D1.11 episodes per child-observation-hour for physical negative behavior between intervention and control school 2-weeks post intervention. A significant increase of observed neutral/prosocial behavior in the playground/cafeteria was noted for intervention students when compared to control students. When classroom, playground and cafeteria ratings were combined to estimate a standardized rate for all settings, there was a significant net decrease in physical negative behavior and a net increase in neutral/prosocial behavior 2-weeks post intervention. Physical aggression rates were significantly lower in the intervention schools compared to the control schools 6-months post intervention. When the overall effect of the curriculum was evaluated across all periods of time, there was a significant decrease in playground/cafeteria physical negative behavior, an increase in playground/cafeteria neutral/prosocial behavior, and a decrease in physical negative behavior across all settings.

Harrington, N.G., Giles, S.M., Hoyle, R.H., Feeney, G.J. & Yungbluth, S.C. (2001). Evaluation of the All Stars character education and problem behavior prevention program: Effects on mediator and outcome variables for middle school students. Health Education and Behavior, 28, 533–546.

This study assessed the effectiveness of the All Stars Program on 6th and 7th grade students’ substance use, sexual activity, and violent behaviors. Students in 14 middle schools from 2 large Midwestern cities participated in the program. The All Stars program was taught by specialists in 5 schools and teachers in 3 schools. The other 6 schools served as controls. Data were collected prior to implementation, immediately after implementation, and at 1 year follow-up. The mean 30-day drug use was significantly higher when the program was taught by a specialist compared to the other conditions post-implementation and at 1-year follow-up. When the program was taught by a teacher, there was significant positive impact on the developmental trend of African American and Hispanic students’ violent behaviors from post-implementation to one year follow-up. Mediational analysis indicated influencing normative perceptions was a partial mediator of the delayed developmental increases in violence.

Johnson, D. and Johnson, R. (1996). Conflict resolution and peer mediation programs in elementary and secondary schools: A review of the research. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 459–506.

This review of the research covers 163 articles and presents the nature of school conflict programs, nature of conflicts in schools, types of conflicts, strategies used to resolve conflicts, as well as a critique of research and recommendations for future research.

Conflict can be cooperative or competitive, constructive or destructive. Common types of conflicts were verbal harassment (name calling and insults), rumors and gossip, physical force, relationships and dating, and theft. Verbal harassment and physical force were most common in elementary schools, with rumors and gossip, verbal and physical harassment and relationships triggering conflict frequently in middle schools. Inner city environments tended toward more physical confrontations than verbal. Thus, managing conflicts becomes the key to preventing violent situations.

Strategies used to resolve conflicts differed for trained and untrained students. Untrained students utilized withdrawal and suppression, force and intimidation, and distributive (win-lose) negotiations. Across all relationships 37% of conflicts were resolved by force or submission and 40% by withdrawal and disengagement. The majority of untrained students used conflict strategies that create destructive outcomes and ignore the importance of ongoing relationships.

Trained students, on the other hand, were more likely to face the conflict, learn, retain and apply conflict mediation procedures, transfer skills to nonschool and nonclassroom conflicts, utilize problem solving and integrative negotiations. Four conflict resolution strategies were used to train students 1) cadre or peer mediator programs 2) total student body programs in which all students learn to manage conflicts 3) skills oriented approach in which students are taught interpersonal and small group skills to resolve conflicts constructively 4) academically oriented programs that teach cognitive skills for managing conflicts. After training, students tended to use effective conflict strategies, generally leading to valuable outcomes, including higher academic achievement, a more positive school climate, healthier relationships with others as well as a decrease in student to student conflicts and principal referrals. In several studies decreases as dramatic as 80% in student to student conflicts and a 71% reduction of physical violence in the classroom and 66% less name-calling and verbal put-downs were noted.

These results are promising. However, the authors note several questions about the strength of this research as a whole: 1) There is a lack of theoretical basis for the programs. Most were developed by nonviolent activists, anti-nuclear-war activists, and lawyers. The resulting programs differ widely in what was taught, how it was taught, and the duration of the program. Until there are more standardized definitions of program treatments, their effectiveness is difficult to assess 2) There is also great variability in defining the outcome variable, e.g., what is a fight, what warrants a suspension. These outcomes need more consistent measurability so that findings across studies are comparable 3) Another source of ambiguity is the connection between the skills learned and their effect on the outcome. More research is needed to clearly identify the effect of various conflict resolution skills on specific outcomes 4) Other methodological problems include poor study design, i.e., students were not randomly assigned to experimental and control groups and teachers were not rotated across conditions. There is also a lack of information on the long-term impact of these programs on schools and the lives of students and their relationships.

Potter, E.C. (ed.) (1996). Violence in Schools. (selected articles). NASSP Bulletin,80(579), 1–101.

Violent situations, school response and prevention are presented in the first series of articles which include: a description of what one school did to help students and staff face the aftermath of the Oklahoma bombing; an outline of intervention strategies that have made a difference in reducing violence; and the implementation of a program of managing conflict by training every student to negotiate and mediate successfully; a description of one middle schools approach to preventing violence through student involvement, counseling, school dress code and other interventions. Other articles describe: student input in developing solutions to school and community problems; a
Safe Schools Handbook as a resource to principals for creating a secure school environment; and developing crisis communication plans. Values and character education are emphasized in a final set of articles in this special edition of the NASSP Bulletin.

Powell, K. E., Muir-McClain, L., Halasyamani, L. (1995). A review of selected school-based conflict resolution and peer mediation projects. Journal of School Health, 65(10), 426–431.

Summaries of nine conflict resolution or peer mediation (CR/PM) projects in four state health departments were presented. Grants for these projects were from the Centers for Disease Control and Preventions National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Florida’s CR/PM training project was piloted in a metropolitan area with K-6 grade students. Classes implemented the Fighting Fair Model curriculum for seven weeks and divided rooms into experimental and control groups. The experimental effect was measured through student surveys and written evaluations by school staff. Their results suggest improved conflict resolution behavior and reductions in students objectionable behavior. In Maryland a peer mediation project was implemented in a K-5 school. Five, 2-hour sessions for two weeks were taught in the classroom, and parents, family and faculty members participated in community sessions. There was no control group, student survey or faculty feedback. Indicators showed decreased principal visits and increases in faculty and student attendance. Missouri’s program included a student mediation training for elementary, middle and high schools that was implemented by a consultant, school counselors and a classroom teacher. Evaluations of the project were primarily subjective and indicated that administrators spoke supportively of the project. No pre-post tests were conducted nor disciplinary records used to track changes in behavior. North Carolina provided a mediation project for middle schools. The curriculum “The Rules for Fighting Fair,” role-playing, videos, and games were used to improve students communication skills. Results showed a decrease in suspensions and improved student scores on pre-post tests.

Although the overall impact of these conflict resolution/peer mediation efforts appeared positive, targeted students, project coordination, teaching and curriculum content, complementary strategies, mediation format, cost and evaluation design differed across states. Because of these inconsistencies in implementation and documentation, summarizing effective strategies was difficult and their effect is unclear. Improved, detailed evaluations are needed to identify successful strategies, and the support these need and to establish the cost-benefit of conflict resolution and peer mediation projects.

Shure, M.B. & Spivack, G. (1979). Interpersonal cognitive problem solving and primary prevention: Programming for preschool and kindergarten children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 89–94.

This study describes the impact Interpersonal Cognitive Problem Solving (ICPS), now known as I Can Problem Solve, had on 131 inner-city, Black nursery school and kindergarten students in Philadelphia over a 2-year period. Thirty-nine students received ICPS for 2 years, 30 received the program in nursery school only, 35 received the program in kindergarten only, and 27 served as controls both years. ICPS lessons were presented daily for 20-minutes in a game format. The average program lasted approximately 3 months. The Preschool Interpersonal Problem Solving (PIPS) test measured students ability to think about alternative solutions to problems. The What Happens Next Game (WHNG) tested students consequential thinking skills. The Hahnemann Preschool Behavior Rating Scale (HPSB) was used by teachers to rate students impatient, emotional and dominant-aggressive behavior. Dominant-aggressive behavior included hits, pushes, bossiness and threatening behaviors. Using this scale, students were categorized as “adjusted,” “inhibited,” or “impulsive.” Control and ICPS nursery school students showed an increase in their alternative solution and consequential thinking scores over time, but the control students were significantly behind the ICPS students after 1 year of implementation. Immediately after the program and at 1-year follow up, a greater percent of ICPS students, than control students, were rated to be “adjusted.” Students who received the program in kindergarten improved significantly beyond control students in alternative solution and consequential thinking skills after the ICPS program. Students who received the program in both nursery and kindergarten had significantly better alternative solution skills than all the other groups. PIPS scores of nursery- and kindergarten-only groups were significantly higher than students who never received the ICPS program. All students who received the program scored higher in consequential thinking than students who never received the program. Students who received the program for 2 years also showed significant improvement over the nursery-only students. The kindergarten-only schools did not differ from the nursery-only students or controls. Significantly fewer students who did not receive ICPS improved to “adjusted” compared to any of the ICPS groups. Students who improved in behavioral adjustment were also more likely to improve in alternative solution and consequential thinking skills than those whose behavior was not “adjusted.” Similarly, follow-up analyses demonstrated there was a significantly lower percentage of students who received ICPS for 2 years and consistently rated aberrant until the end of the 1st grade versus control students. The percentage was not lower for students who received the program in nursery- or kindergarten-only.

Shure, M.B. & Spivak, G. (1982). Interpersonal problem-solving in young children: A cognitive approach to prevention. American Journal of Community Psychology, 10, 341–356.

This study reports the 2-year impact of teaching students interpersonal cognitive processing skills (ICPS). Two hundred and nineteen Black students attending federally funded day care from 20 centers either received ICPS or acted as controls. At 1-year follow up, 35 control students received ICPS, 27 remained controls and 44 were lost to normal attrition. Therefore, students received the program in nursery school only, nursery school and kindergarten, kindergarten only or not at all. ICPS consisted of 20-minute games and dialog between teachers and students for approximately 3 months. As described above, the PIPS test measured students alternative solutions to interpersonal acts, WHNG measured students consequential thinking related to interpersonal acts, and a causal test measured students ability to conceptualize cause-and-effect. Teachers rated students behavior by rating students impatience, emotionality and dominance-aggression. Dominant-aggressive behavior included hitting, pushing and verbal domination. Based upon these ratings, students were classified as “inhibited,” “impulsive” or “adjusted.” Results are reported for both genders unless otherwise specified. Students who received ICPS in nursery school or kindergarten significantly improved their consequential thinking pre- to post-test compared to controls. The amount of extraneous talk significantly decreased as the number of relevant solutions increased in both years. Students exposed to ICPS significantly increased the number of consequences generated in nursery school and kindergarten compared to controls as measured by WHNG. Relative to controls, nursery school students who received ICPS significantly increased their spontaneous tendency to conceptualize cause-and-effect when presented with an interpersonal event. With regard to behavioral adjustment, a significantly greater percentage of nursery school students rated as “impulsive” at pre-test were well-adjusted at post-test compared to controls. A significantly greater percentage of initially “inhibited” nursery school students moved into the “adjusted” behavior category in the ICPS versus control group. In kindergarten, there was a significantly greater percent of maladaptive ICPS students rated “adjusted” following ICPS versus control. Students who improved in behavioral adjustment were also significantly more likely to improve in alternative solution thinking skills than those whose behavior did not change. The relationship between increased consequential thinking scores and behavior change was also significant for kindergarten students. Causal thinking as an independent mediator of adjustment was not empirically demonstrated in this study. Increased ICPS skills were statistically independent of IQ changes. Shure, M.B., & Spivack, G. (1980). Interpersonal problem solving as a mediator of behavioral adjustment in preschool and kindergarten. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 1, 29–44

This study looked at the interpersonal problem-solving skills of Black, low socioeconomic four to five year old students in nursery and kindergarten school. One hundred and thirteen students received the ICPS program in nursery school and 106 acted controls. Thirty-nine students trained in nursery school also received the program in kindergarten. Thirty students were trained in nursery school only, 35 were trained in kindergarten only and 27 were never trained. The program consisted of 12 weeks of formal scripted sessions implemented by teachers in groups of 6 to 9 students. Teachers also conducted problem-solving dialogs using real-life situations. Ten teachers were trained from 5 federally-funded day-care centers. As described above, the PIPS test and WHNG were used to assess students alternative solution and consequential thinking skills respectively. The HPSB was used by teachers to assess students impatience, emotionality, and physical and verbal dominance-aggression. Using this scale, students were categorized as “adjusted,” “inhibited” or “impulsive.” Results indicate the ICPS program increased cognitive problem-solving skills in “adjusted” students as well as “impulsive” and “inhibited” students. In kindergarten, aberrant as well as “adjusted” students benefited from the training. Significantly more students who received the ICPS program were rated “adjusted” versus control students after the intervention. Significantly more “impulsive” and “inhibited” students who received the program became “adjusted” than students who did not receive the program. After kindergarten, significantly more students who received the program in kindergarten were “adjusted” than controls. There were significantly more “adjusted” students at post-nursery school and at 6-month follow up than controls. Significantly more students who received the program in kindergarten only were still ahead at 1-year follow up compared to controls. At 1-year follow up, significantly more students who received the program in nursery school remained “adjusted” at each of the 4 assessments through the end of kindergarten compared to controls. Of the 51 students who were judged aberrant at the beginning of the study, only 27% remained so throughout nursery school and at 6-month follow up compared to 65% of controls. Of the students who received the program in nursery school, 10% remained consistently aberrant from preschool through the end of kindergarten compared to 71% of controls. For students who received the program in nursery school and kindergarten, PIPS gain scores were greater for students whose behavior changed compared to those whose behavior did not. Students who received the program in nursery school and kindergarten did significantly better on PIPS scores than those who received the program only one year. Receiving the program once in either year was significantly better than not receiving the program at all. For students who received the program in kindergarten only, WHNG gain scores were greater for students whose behavior changed compared to those whose behavior did not.

Sussman, S., Dent, C.W. & Stacy, A.W. (2002). Project Towards No Drug Abuse: A review of the findings and future directions. American Journal of Health Behavior, 26, 354–365.

This study reviewed evidence from three Project Towards No Drug Abuse (TND) experimental studies. Outcomes were assessed using student questionnaires at baseline and 1 year follow up. Telephone surveys were used to collect data from students who were no longer enrolled in the high school at 1 year follow up. Student questionnaire items and responses were derived from the national Monitoring the Future survey. Unless a gender is specified, results were found for the combined (male and female) student data. The first study was conducted in 21 continuation high schools. Schools received either the standard care control, a 9-session TND program, or a 9-session TND program plus a school-as-community program. When schools receiving Project TND and Project TND plus the school-as-community program were compared to standard care schools at 1 year follow-up, there was a 25% relative reduction in the prevalence of hard drug use, 7% relative reduction in alcohol use for those using alcohol at baseline, 21% relative reduction in weapon carrying in males, and 23% relative reduction in victimization in males. There were no significant behavior differences between students who received the TND program and the TND plus community program. The second study was conducted in 3 traditional high schools. Twenty-six classrooms were randomly assigned to receive the 9-session TND program or the standard care control. At 1 year follow up, the students in Project TND classrooms showed a 25% relative reduction in the prevalence of hard drug use, 12% relative reduction in alcohol use among baseline users, 19% relative reduction in weapon carrying in males, and 17% relative reduction in victimization in males. The third study was conducted in 18 continuation high schools randomly assigned to receive the 12-session TND program, the 12-session self-instructional version of TND, or standard care control. Only the health educator-led condition provided a reduction in problem behavior rates relative to the other conditions. There was a 26% relative reduction in hard drug use, 9% relative reduction in alcohol use among baseline users, 6% relative reduction in victimization among males, 37% relative reduction in weapon-carrying among baseline non-weapon carriers, 27% relative reduction in cigarette smoking, and 22% relative reduction in marijuana use.

Thompson, E.A., Horn, M., Herting, J.R., Eggert, L.L. (1997). Enhancing outcomes in an indicated drug prevention program for high-risk youth. Journal of Drug Education, 27, 19–41.

This study compared an earlier version of the personal growth class program to a revised version during a 4-year period in 5 high schools. The revised version contained an enhanced life-skills training section to address depression and related mental health problems. The revised version also was reorganized and re-sequenced; the original content was retained. Students were selected from 5 public high schools in the Pacific Northwest and identified as high-risk. One group received the earlier version of the program, the other received the revised version. There were no significant differences at baseline between the 2 groups except with respect to school absences. When the unit of analysis was the cohort, results demonstrated the cohort was a significant predictor of outcome for hard drug use, depression, perceived stress and anger. Students who received the revised version had significantly greater decreases in depression, perceived stress, anger and hard drug use. The differences were sustained when the data were reanalyzed using the schools as the unit of analysis (creating 32 intervention groups) with the exception of hard drug use.

Valois, R., McKeon, R., Garrison, C. & Vincent, M. (1995). Correlates of aggressive and violent behaviors among public high school adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 16, 26–34.

Adolescents aged 12–19 have the highest victimization rates for violent crimes and theft. The South Carolina Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) was conducted in 1990 to determine the types and predictors of violent behaviors. South Carolina 9 -12th grade public school students (4,137) participated in the statewide survey. Students were of two ethnicity’s 62% of the students were Caucasian and 38% were African-American with approximately equal distribution of males and females.

Analysis of these results indicate that 38% of males and 11% of females reported carrying a weapon to school. More white males carried weapons compared to black males (38% vs 35.8%).

For carrying a weapon, the strongest predictors included alcohol use and sexual activity in all but white females and illegal drug use among whites, but not blacks. Eleven percent of white females reported involvement in fights resulting in injury. The strongest predictors of fighting were binge drinking and sexual activity for males, alcohol use and illegal drug use for white females, and sexual activity for black females.

Other risk-taking behaviors were also evaluated. Over 30% reported at least one sex partner in the last three months. About 20% of males and 30% of females did not participate in any hard exercise in the past two weeks and 6% of whites and 20% of blacks reported watching 6 or more hours of TV/video per day.

The authors propose that to prevent adolescent violence and reduce risk-taking behaviors, education efforts must focus on adolescent behavior change and environmental modification as well as long-term intervention strategies that involve both the school and community.

Date: 07/31/2010

Research and Resources

Violence Prevention